What 1803 Supreme Court case established the principle of judicial review?

The landmark 1803 Supreme Court case that solidified the judiciary's role in American government emerged from the heated political climate following the contentious 1800 presidential election. As outgoing Federalist President John Adams sought to secure his party's influence, he made a flurry of last-minute judicial appointments, known as the "midnight judges." However, not all of these commissions were delivered before Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, took office. When Jefferson instructed his Secretary of State, James Madison, to withhold these undelivered commissions, one appointee, William Marbury, sued Madison directly in the Supreme Court, seeking a court order, or writ of mandamus, to force the delivery of his commission.

Chief Justice John Marshall, presiding over a Supreme Court facing a delicate political situation, crafted a brilliant solution. While the Court agreed that Marbury had a legal right to his commission, Marshall determined that the Supreme Court did not have the original jurisdiction to issue the writ of mandamus in this specific instance. This was because the section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that granted the Supreme Court the power to issue such writs in cases like Marbury's was found to be in conflict with Article III of the Constitution, which defines the Court's original jurisdiction.

By declaring a portion of the Judiciary Act unconstitutional, Chief Justice Marshall established the principle of judicial review. This pivotal decision asserted that federal courts, and ultimately the Supreme Court, have the authority to interpret the Constitution and declare acts of Congress or the executive branch unconstitutional if they violate the nation's supreme law. This power is a cornerstone of the American system of checks and balances, ensuring that no single branch of government becomes too powerful and that the Constitution remains the ultimate legal authority.